Intertestamental Period
About 400 years separate the end of the Old Testament era from the beginning of the New Testament era. During this period, the rulers of Judea changed several times, the Old Testament was translated into Greek, and institutions such as synagogues and councils gradually developed. Exploring this history helps explain the people, institutions, and political circumstances that the New Testament often introduces without further explanation.
This period is often called the 400 silent years. Here, silence means that no further Old Testament prophetic books were written. It does not mean that God was inactive or that no literature was produced. Jewish communities continued to write apocalyptic and wisdom literature.
Jews of the period also recognized the absence of prophets. First Maccabees 9:27 refers to the time since prophets ceased to appear; 4:46 and 14:41 speak of waiting until a prophet should come. These passages show awareness of that absence. Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books
The dates below are approximate dates in B.C. Details may differ according to sources and interpretations.
Under the Persian Empire, Jewish communities enjoyed a degree of autonomy centered on the high priest.
What happened?
Scripture Historical sources
Related passages
Alexander the Great's conquests ended Persian rule and brought Jewish society increasingly under the influence of the Hellenistic world.
What happened?
Scripture Historical sources
Related passages
333 B.C. marks Alexander's decisive victory over Persian forces at the Battle of Issus. Palestine came under his rule around 332 B.C., and the Persian Empire effectively collapsed around 331–330 B.C.
This page does not take a position on the disputed date of the composition of Daniel.
Judea experienced relative stability under Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty, while Greek-speaking Jewish communities grew substantially.
What happened?
Historical sources
After Judea came under the Seleucid dynasty, conflicts over Hellenization intensified and eventually led to religious persecution and the desecration of the temple.
What happened?
Scripture Historical sources Views differ
Related passages
Many interpreters connect parts of Daniel 8 and 11 with Antiochus IV and events of this period. However, the date of Daniel's composition and the full scope of these prophecies remain disputed.
This page does not take a position on the disputed date of the composition of Daniel.
The Maccabean Revolt restored religious freedom and eventually led to political independence. Later internal conflict within the Hasmonean dynasty brought Roman intervention.
What happened?
Historical sources Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books
Related passages
167 B.C. marks the start of the Maccabean Revolt, rather than political independence. About twenty years separate the temple's purification in 164 B.C. from independence around 142 B.C. The Hasmonean family also continued to rule Judea for a time after Roman intervention in 63 B.C.
Protestants do not recognize the Books of Maccabees as canonical Scripture. Here they are cited as historical sources for understanding the period, rather than as texts carrying biblical authority. Events from this era are also recorded in Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews. A document's canonical status and its usefulness as a historical source are distinct questions.
Roman intervention ended Hasmonean independence and introduced the Herodian dynasty and Roman governors familiar from the New Testament.
What happened?
Historical sources
Related passages
Before this period
Hebrew + Aramaic (already spreading)
New Testament era
Hebrew (worship and Scripture) + Aramaic (daily life) + Koine Greek (common language)
Jewish use of Aramaic began before the intertestamental period. It was already widespread during the exile and Persian era (2 Kings 18:26 and the Aramaic passages of Ezra and Daniel). The important change was the addition of Koine Greek. Hebrew also continued in use as the language of Scripture and worship.
Before this period
Hebrew Scripture scrolls
New Testament era
Hebrew Scriptures + Septuagint (LXX)
As Greek-speaking Jewish communities grew, the Old Testament began to be translated into Greek. This translation is called the Septuagint (LXX). The Pentateuch came first, followed by other books. By New Testament times this Greek Bible was widely used, and many New Testament quotations of the Old Testament closely resemble its wording.
Before this period
Centered on the Jerusalem temple
New Testament era
Temple + local synagogues
The origins of synagogues are disputed. Some trace them to gatherings that preserved faith without a temple during the Babylonian exile. Others point to literary and archaeological evidence from the third century B.C. onward and place their fuller development in this period. By New Testament times, synagogues were established across many regions as regular settings for reading and teaching Scripture and communal prayer. Views differ
Before this period
Priests
New Testament era
Priests + scribes and experts in the Law
Scribes did not first appear during this period: Ezra is already described as a scribe skilled in the Law. As studying, interpreting, and teaching Scripture became increasingly important, scribes and experts in the Law became prominent religious leaders. In the Gospels, Rabbi was an honorific meaning teacher (John 1:38). Rabbinic Judaism in its later form developed more fully after the temple's destruction in A.D. 70.
Before this period
Autonomy under the high priest
New Testament era
Sanhedrin
Elders had long played an important role in Jewish society. Councils of elders called the Gerousia appear in this period. These traditions developed into the New Testament Sanhedrin, involving the high priest, elders, and scribes. It was a governing and judicial institution formed gradually across successive periods, rather than created in a single year. Sources differ on its precise membership and powers. Views differ
Before this period
Groups not yet clearly distinguished
New Testament era
Distinct groups emerge + growing messianic hopes
During this period, Jewish groups developed distinct positions on the Law, the temple, politics, and foreign culture. Pharisees and Sadducees appear frequently in the New Testament, while Essenes and other groups also existed. Continued foreign rule heightened hopes for God's deliverance and the Messiah, although expectations of the Messiah were diverse. This background helps explain debates about Jesus's identity and messianic role.
Before this period
Covenant signs, including Sabbath and circumcision
New Testament era
Important boundaries preserving Jewish identity
Sabbath observance and circumcision were longstanding signs of Israel's covenant (Exodus 31:13; Ezekiel 20:12). This period added memories of persecution and martyrdom endured to preserve them. Antiochus IV prohibited Sabbath observance, circumcision, and dietary practices required by the Law (1 Maccabees 1:41–64). Jewish resistance made these practices important boundaries of communal identity, helping explain New Testament disputes over Sabbath and purity. Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books
These five groups were not all religious sects of the same kind. Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes are chiefly distinguished by faith and interpretation of the Law. Herodians and Zealots are more closely associated with political positions and actions. Josephus describes the first three as Jewish philosophies and later calls the movement associated with Judas the Galilean a fourth philosophy.
| Group | Origins | View of Scripture | Resurrection and angels | Political outlook | New Testament references |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pharisees | Often thought to have developed from the Hasidim Origins: disputed | Value both written Law and oral tradition | Affirm resurrection and angels | Emphasize observance of the Law and religious purity | Matthew 23 Acts 23:6-8 |
| Sadducees | Priestly and aristocratic circles associated with the temple | Value written Law; reject Pharisaic oral tradition Extent of canon: disputed | Deny resurrection and angels | Preserve the temple establishment; cooperate pragmatically with Rome | Mark 12:18 Acts 23:8 |
| Essenes | Separatist communities apart from mainstream society | Strict observance and purity; strong expectations of the end times | Reported belief in the soul's immortality and afterlife (Josephus) | Distance from temple leadership and secular authorities | Not directly mentioned in the New Testament Qumran association: plausible inference |
| Zealots | A current of resistance to Roman rule | — | — | Reject Roman rule and seek political independence | Luke 6:15 Meaning of Zealot: disputed |
| Herodians | Political supporters of the Herodian dynasty | — | — | Pragmatic cooperation with Herodian rule and the Roman order | Mark 3:6 Mark 12:13 |
Historical understanding of these groups relies heavily on Josephus (c. A.D. 37–100). He compared Jewish groups with philosophical schools familiar to Greek and Roman readers. His writings are crucial historical sources, but they also reflect a particular author's time, perspective, and intended audience.
Why were Jews and Samaritans estranged?
Scripture Historical sources Views differ
Connections with the New Testament
The precise date of the Gerizim temple's destruction is disputed. Some date it around 128 B.C. using Josephus; others favor around 110 B.C. on archaeological grounds. Its destruction by John Hyrcanus is generally accepted.
The Jerusalem temple appearing in the Gospels is the Second Temple, greatly expanded by Herod.
Scripture Historical sources
Connections with the New Testament
Matthew 2 is often read against the historical background of Herod's sensitivity to threats to his throne. However, Matthew does not attribute his conduct to his ancestry or place of origin. His attempt to kill Bethlehem's children can be understood as defending his power against a perceived rival. Interpretation of Matthew 2: views differ
Why do the Gospels mention Roman governors, Herodian rulers, and taxes together?
Scripture Historical sources
Connections with the New Testament
Luke 3:1 Matthew 2:22 Matthew 22:17
The chronology of Quirinius and the census in Luke 2:2 has long been debated. This page uses the passage to illustrate the Roman administrative background without treating it as proof of a particular date.
The Feast of Dedication in John 10:22 commemorates the recovery, purification, and rededication of the Jerusalem temple during the Maccabean Revolt in 164 B.C. It is now called Hanukkah. Intertestamental history explains the background to this briefly mentioned New Testament festival.
Scripture Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books
Protestants do not recognize Maccabees as canonical Scripture. Here it is cited as a historical source for understanding these events. Josephus also records events of this era in Book 12 of Antiquities of the Jews. Canonical status and use as a historical source are separate questions.
In New Testament times, gatherings for reading and teaching Scripture and for prayer regularly took place in local synagogues as well as at the Jerusalem temple. Jesus and the apostles used synagogues as important settings for ministry.
Scripture
The Sanhedrin was a council of Jewish leaders including the high priest, elders, and scribes. It plays an important role in the accounts of Jesus's trial and the questioning of early Christians.
Scripture
Pharisees and Sadducees held different views on the Law, tradition, resurrection, and angels. These distinctions help explain many disputes in the Gospels and Acts.
Scripture
Greek spread widely after Alexander's conquests, and many Jews lived in cities outside Palestine. These diaspora communities and the common language, Koine Greek, helped provide the setting for the gospel's later spread through the Mediterranean world.
Scripture
Jews and Samaritans had longstanding disputes over worship and their communities' legitimacy. Jesus's visits to Samaritans and his positive portrayals of them therefore carried particular significance for his contemporaries.
Scripture
New Testament Judea was under Roman imperial rule, with Roman governors and Herodian rulers in different regions. This background explains frequent Gospel references to Pilate, Herod, tetrarchs, and taxes.
Scripture
After the long prophetic silence, the New Testament story begins. An angel appeared to Zechariah while he offered incense in the temple and announced John the Baptist's birth (Luke 1:8–13). Filled with the Holy Spirit, Zechariah prophesied (Luke 1:67). In the temple, the prophet Anna recognized the infant Jesus (Luke 2:36). Finally, the word of God came to John, son of Zechariah, in the wilderness (Luke 3:2), recalling the calling of Old Testament prophets. Across approximately four centuries, changes in history, culture, language, and institutions prepared the setting in which the gospel story now unfolds.